What does it mean to 'exist'? How do we know you exist? Could you prove it to a doubter? Do you exist in the same sense as the number 3 exists, or the mathematical constant pi or the square root of -2? Or love, or hate or war or peace? In which of these senses, if any, is God held to exist? Is He inside or outside of time? Does He intervene in the affairs of the world? Does God have a gender (father, mother, son) and in what sense were we 'made in His image'? Are pantheists right to suggest that the universe as a whole is divine or that God is a force that pervades the cosmos? Which religion - if any - has the truth about God? Does one have a monopoly or are they all searching for the same thing?

No one can prove the existence of God either way - it is especially difficult and maybe impossible to prove non-existence of something! Weak atheists argue that there is no good reason to believe in God; strong atheists argue that there are good reasons to believe He does not exist. There are, however, many arguments on both sides that have been put forward for over 2,000 years. Remember that it is one thing for a God to exist and another for a particular religion to be true. That is why I have divided the man points into 2 sections - the first apply to the general claim that there is a God, the second to the claim that He is the Christian God. Other religions would have different arguments to put forward.


General Arguments For [and Against] the Existence of God

Ontological Argument - God is a being than whom nothing greater exists so must therefore exist! [You cannot define something into existence]

Cosmological Argument - everything has a cause and the cause and sustainer of the universe is God, the 'Prime Mover' [What caused God?]

Religious Experience - people claim to have seen / heard God [Could be in their imagination]

Near-death experiences [Chemicals in the brain the cause]

Argument from Design - the universe is so carefully made to support human life it must have been deliberately made so [Could be chance/evolution or there may be an infinite number of parallel universes]

God necessary for morality and justice [Humanist morality and morals / justice are relative concepts]

Vast areas of unexplained phenomena remain - eg 90% of universe! [God only fills gaps in knowledge - no longer necessary with science]

Human brain wired for religious experience [God was created by mankind for social / psychological reasons]

[The whole idea is illogical and self-contradictory]

[Divine Hiddenness - why does God not show Himself?] He has - just look for Him!


Arguments for [and Against] the Christian view of God

Accuracy of Bible - text, history etc [Factual errors in Bible]

Consistency of the OT and NT [Bible is full of (apparent) contradictions*]

Prophecy fulfilled [Most vague, wrong, altered after the event or acted out]

The resurrection of Jesus the only explanation for the early church and the martyrs [Disciples deluded or dishonest]

Success of the Church [Church divided and often immoral]

Superior moral teaching [Not unique to Christianity]

Good works by Christians [Atrocities by Christians]

Miracles [Bogus, chance events or capable rational explanation and not exclusive to any religion]

[Theological problems including - problem of evil, election, freewill, Hell, original sin]

[Philosophical problems]

[No agreement among Christians]

* A web site is devoted to these, but many seem trivial

Some of these issues - such as evolution / creation and the problem of evil - will be looked at in later units. In the end neither side can prove their case and so it comes down to faith. Some argue that God does not wish to compel faith by making it too obvious (where's the merit then?). Pascal's wager suggests that given the risks involved it makes more sense to believe than not to - but is such a calculating approach valid?

Visit the Pulpit page of this site and read the sermon on the existence of God.


The Nature of God

If we accept that God exists, what - if anything - can we know about Him? There are a number of views on this.

Atheists would say that it is pointless question since God does not exist. We can know no more about God tan we can about Father Xmas or unicorns. Agnostics would say that God might exist but we cannot possibly know whether He does or anything about Him. Most believers would accept that humans can never fully understand or comprehend the majesty of God (any more than a 2 dimensional creature could understand a 3D world or a chimp could understand Einstein's theory of relativity!) However, there are several ways in which God has revealed Himself to us -

1) Nature - the wonders of the universe and living creation reveals their designer
2) Scripture - through the Bible or other sacred texts God has revealed Himself
3) Miracles - reveal the power and goodness of God
4) Personal Experience - mystics have had direct communion with God
5) Appearances - prophets such as Moses saw at least the partial gory of God
6) Angelic Messages
7) The Life of Jesus - Jesus was God in human flesh (the incarnation) -his life and teachings are for Christians the best way to know God


So, what then can we say about God? According to Christian teaching the following words (among others) can be used to describe Him -

God, Creator, Father, Son, Holy Spirit, Lord of Hosts, almighty, loving, forgiving, patient, jealous, wrathful, vengeful, omniscient (knows all), omnipresent (is everywhere), eternal, unchanging, just, good, a shepherd, a refuge, a redeemer, a judge, a fountain of living water, true, living, Saviour, a husband (to the Church), strong, a King of kings, three in one, a still small voice, holy, mysterious, a personal God, a Messiah, the God of Israel, Yahweh, Jesus, light, the Holy One of Israel, Alpha and Omega, the Angel of the Lord.

Of course, to unbelievers none of these descriptions has any truth outside the personal beliefs of religious people. Philosophers try to analyse the meaning of these claims aswell as trying to assess their validity.


The Authority of Sacred Texts

The Bible, Koran etc are not just books written by humans - they are inspired works. Believers accept that in these works are the words of God for our benefit. The words of prophets were 'the Word of the Lord' (eg Hosea 1.1, 2 Peter 1.21). 'Inspired' means 'breathed' and the books of the Bible were selected because it was thought that these (alone) were inspired by God. This means that its words are true and we should abide by them. But how can we be sure that the Bible really is inspired? We need to avoid the risk of circular argument - the Bible is inspired because it says it is! The main arguments are below - of course, atheists deny all these claims!-

1) Consistency - many authors but one coherent message over 1000 years
2) Lack of Error - history often confirms Biblical claims which were once doubted*
3) Textual Accuracy - the Dead sea Scrolls show this
4) Inspired Knowledge - about ancient events, the order of creation etc
5) Contemporary with Events - many once thought that most of the Bible was made up years after the events but it is now thought that the NT was written within 30 years - a fragment in Manchester dates from 125AD.
6) Accurate Prophecy - eg the fall of Jerusalem and the return of Israel 2000 years later

* eg the size of the city of Ninevah, the existence of Sodom, people found alive inside whales, the existence of Pontius Pilate etc.

Some Useful Web Sites:
Is there a God? www.meaning-of-life.info/IsThereAGod.html
Does God Exist? www.doesgodexist.org
The Atheism Web www.infidels.org/news/atheism/overview.html


(As you might expect, there is a huge amount of material on the internet relating to God, some of it put there by atheists and agnostics but most of it designed to convert to or confirm in religious belief. You need to be alert to the obvious bias of most of these sites. Here are a few of the more interesting looking ones - search Google to see what else you can find. Use the link above to order free literature on this topic.)

What is Science?

Science is, put simply, an attempt to discover the truth about the universe and how it works in an unbiased (objective) way. This sometimes means using certain methods, particularly experiments, to test ideas (hypotheses) or theories. If the evidence (observations, results, measurements) do not fit the theory, the theory should be changed. In reality science is often wrong. This is partly because we do not yet have enough evidence to get the answers right (eg how did galaxies begin?) but it is also because scientists are human and are not always as unbiased as they should be! A few cheat (and fake their results) and others are very reluctant to give up a favourite theory, especially if they thought it up!

Science v Religion

Do these conflict? When they seem to there appear to be several possible views -

1) Science is right, religion wrong
2) Religion is right, science wrong
3) There is no conflict - correctly understood, science and religion always coincide

Take the heliocentric theory. The church at first insisted that the sun goes round the earth but had to concede that this is not so. This was because they misinterpreted the Bible. Sometimes science is used to test the truth of religion - eg testing the Turin Shroud, investigating holy visions or experiments on the power of prayer. Many scientists are non-religious and have complete contempt for those who stick literally to the Bible but there are also many scientists who are themselves personally religious and see no conflict at all between science and faith.

You should visit www.godandscience.org for more information on this whole topic

Creation and Evolution

This is one of the most heated debates between (some) religious people and the scientific community. 'Creation Science' is a movement that promotes the belief in the Biblical account of creation. Some of their work is of very poor quality, but by no means all and there are a few well-respected scientists who support this view, though it has to be said that the vast majority take it for granted that the Big Bang plus Evolution model is beyond doubt correct.

In the case of creation there seem to be the following options -

1) God created the universe in 6 days about 6-10,000 years ago (recent creation)
2) God created the universe in 6 'periods' billions of years ago (ancient creation)
3) The universe happened by chance or has always existed

The evidence is overwhelming that the universe and the earth are billions of years old - geologists can see this in the rocks, fossils confirm it as does data from radioactive material and astronomy (eg the age of star clusters and the fact that light from distant stars could not have reached us in 10,000 years). Some creationists seem to suggest that God created the world to look older than it really is - but why should He wish to deceive us in this way? They believe in 'Flood Geology' in which everything is explained by reference to a massive flood. The Bishop of Chester agrees that those who hold this view are bringing religion into disrepute since their arguments seem so ludicrous.

For evolution we have these options -

Religious Views
Special creation in 6 days (young Earth)
Theistic evolution (God started the process off then left it to run)
Intermittent interventions by God to create new species (old Earth)

Atheist Views
Evolution by natural selection - Darwinism
Punctuated equilibrium

Militant Darwinists such as Prof. Dawkins argue that given long periods of time life and all its complex variety can happen by mutation of genes and environmental selection of the fittest. Those organisms that are best adapted have a better chance to reproduce and pass on their genes so eventually they win out in the struggle to survive. Less well-adapted species die out. Darwinists point to real life examples and computer simulations to support their theory. The problem for Darwin's theory of natural selection is that the key fossil evidence is missing and many mathematicians believe that the odds against complex life forms coming into being through genetic mutation are like the odds of a wind blowing through a scrapyard and creating a jumbo jet. Mutations are generally harmful or several would need to happen together to be of any advantage.

Recently biologists have suggested that evolution occurs in bursts with not much change in between (punctuated evolution) but this only creates further problems and many serious (and non always religious) scientists are being forced to reexamine the case for Darwinism. Some have suggested the need for some sort of guiding force to direct evolution.

Does it matter? Some say what matters is whether God created the universe, not how He did it. They see Adam (which just means 'man') as a symbolic figure and the story of the Garden of Eden as morally and spiritually true, not literal fact. Other more fundamentalist believers say it does matter and that we must accept the literal truth of the OT. This is partly because of the theological implications of the fall of man in the Garden of Eden - no Adam and Eve means no temptation by the Devil and no original sin, so less obvious need for Jesus (the 'second Adam') to die. Even Church leaders do not agree on which view is correct.

Useful Books and Websites

Check out some of the arguments for yourself - in the library we have

Hayward, A. Creation and Evolution - Facts and Fallacies

Pearce, E.K.V. Evidence for Truth 3 vols (Science, Archaeology, Prophecy)

and on the internet (Google will reveal thousands more!)-

Conflict Science v Religion www.religioustolerance.org/sci_rel.htm
Theories of Origins of Life www.religioustolerance.org/evolutio.htm
Creation Science Debunked www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/2437/
Creation Science http://emporium.net/C/cs/
Evolution vs. Creationism http://physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/ORIGINS/origins.html
What is Evolution? http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/evo/blfaq_ev0-what.htm
Creation SuperLibrary www.christiananswers.net/creation/home.html

Download or order the leaflet from gnmagazine

Meaning of Life

If the universe is an accident then there is no meaning to life other than what each person chooses to give it. Some biologists, influenced by Darwin's theory, argue that the meaning of life is to pass on your genes, to survive, to win the struggle of life. Maybe that really is all there is to it!

Religious people see the meaning of life in terms of God's purpose. God created the world so that He could have a relationship with free, thinking, moral human beings. That is why He is so disappointed at the way people often behave and at the fact that so many have rejected Him. On this view He has set out his purpose in the Bible and fulfilled it in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus. Only by living in accordance with God's purpose and teachings can we be fulfilled as human beings. For Christians the overriding need is to restore our relationship with God which has been damaged by our sinfulness. To do this it is necessary to turn to Jesus (and to love our neighbours). Sin is anything which hinders this relationship. Some see this life as merely a preparation for the next.

Visit: The Meaning of Life www.mlife.org

Religion and the Environment

'The Earth is the Lord's, and everything in it' (Psalm24.1)

This is quite a trendy issue at the moment! Ecologists emphasise how all living things depend on each other how vital it is for us to protect our environment from serious harm. There is, of course, a very practical reason for this - we live here and if we wreck the earth there is nowhere else (at present) to go! Some people have claimed that Christianity is anti-environmental because it sees the earth as a resource for us to use for our own good but in fact religious people bring an added dimension to ecological concern; the world is God's creation and we were given it to look after (Genesis 1.31).

Adam was given dominion over the earth and its living creatures but he was to care for Eden in a 'sustainable' way - ie use it, not abuse it. This was the reason why Jews were told to give their land a rest every so often, and Noah's Ark can be seen as a good example of preserving biodiversity! Bishop Jones of Liverpool has written a book called 'Jesus and the Earth' in which he declares that it is a moral and religious necessity to care for the earth because the whole universe was created by and for Jesus - to desecrate it is to defile God's own gifts. The earth is 'sacred', God's footstool where He has contact with humans. The Book of Revelation (11.180 says that god will judge and punish those who destroy the earth.

If you think that the earth is just a lump of rock in space and that the universe is an accident then you may feel that it is a good idea to exploit it while you can, after all you won't be here to worry about it in 100 years time when half of Britain is flooded or exposed to solar radiation! Unless of course you are concerned about your grandchildren!

For more visit - Christian Ecology Link www.christian-ecology.org.uk/index.htm

After You Die ...what next?



This has to be the most crucial question any one can ever ask! The atoms that make up our bodies were forged in the centre of giant stars billions of years ago. Everything is recycled. Is that our fate - to be recycled for eternity as food for micro-organisms? Will you end up as part of a worm or fungus? The answer is - yes! Many people believe that that really is all there is to it. But it’s a bit depressing to think that it is true. Not all religious people believe that there is life after death - many Jews in the time of Jesus did not. Many, however, think that this life is just a preparation for the next and that that life lasts for eternity. Some religions believe in reincarnation as a result our the sort of life we lead now (Glenn Hoddle suggested that the disabled are being punished for a previous life and had to resign as England manager but millions of Hindus would agree!) See www.fst.org/reinc1.htm for more.



If there is life after death it has massive implications for how we live our present life. If we die and that’s it then we might as well make the most of it while we can - ‘eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die’ - but if we face some sort of judgement then we had better beware. For Christians one of the great joys of their faith is that they are looking forward to eternal life in communion with God. That is why they were not afraid to die as martyrs for their beliefs.

Visit www.ucg.org.au/offers/afterdeath.asp to find out! Send off for the free book or down load it. Do you find their answer attractive and convincing? If not, why not? are there any flaws in their argument? Remember to approach it philosophically - but also remember that being a philosopher may not get you into heaven!

Body and Soul



If you are simply a physical being made up of atoms then you die and that is it, just like a broken computer. But many people believe that life has an added dimension - a soul. Only humans may have this - not animals - and if so it would give them special rights and responsibilities. The soul could be a small part of God or some other spiritual entity. It may survive death. Ask yourself this - how are your thoughts connected to your body? Are thoughts physical (electrical signals in your brain)? If so, how are we aware of them? If they are not physical, how do they affect our body, which is? Do we have free will - or are we controlled by our genes and our environment? A computer is not free of its program and its user - are we any more free? Maybe it is our soul that has this freedom. This question is known as ‘Mind - Body Dualism’.



Is there Life after Death?



Visit the website 10 Reasons to Believe in Life after Death (send off for the booklet! - link below) www.gospelcom.net/rbc/rtb ;there you will see some of the main reasons to believe. I would emphasise the following -



· Life would be very unfair if evil people were not punished in the end (but may be it is unfair)

· People have had near death experiences (they could the chemical effects on the brain) - visit www.near-death.com for all the evidence.

· The New Testament promises eternal life

· Other religions believe in it (they could all be wrong, guilty of wishful thinking)

· Spiritualist mediums contact the dead (many are frauds)

· Jesus rose from the dead (not everyone believes this, but the case is stronger than you may think)

· Ghosts (maybe an other explanation)

· Memories of previous lives (could be all fake)

· People have been raised - eg Lazarus (below)



You can find a long and rather advanced explanation of the cases for and against life after death on www.leader.com/truth/1truth28.html and www.infidels.org/library/modern/keith_augustine/immortality.html


Heaven, and how to get there.



Would you like to see what it is like in heaven? Visit http://heaventour.org/ and find out. This site offers a ‘sneak preview’ of the Kingdom of God and a test to see if you will get in. Seriously, the question of salvation is a crucial one, obviously. Are you saved -



· by believing in God

· by believing in Jesus

· by being a good person

· by believing AND being good

· because God has selected you

· by forgiving others

· for some other reason



Christians tend to emphasise faith in Jesus but they do not all agree. Catholics used to sell pieces of paper forgiving your sins!



‘Hell ain’t a bad place to be’ (AC/DC)



Many Christians would fundamentally disagree - Hell is an eternal fire where the damned are punished for eternity. Other Christians feel this is a bit harsh (at least for ordinary sinners like you) so have proposed that there is a ‘sinbin’ called Purgatory where you are punished until you are fit for heaven. Today some liberal Christians are unhappy about the whole idea of Hell and are very reluctant to discuss it or openly say it is not real. Some try to explain it in some other - less terrifying - way. There is little doubt that Jesus took it seriously as a place of punishment, but what is less clear is who exactly will end up there. Visit www.av1611.org/hell.html for the ‘truth’ and send off for the free booklet.



Of course, if you are an atheist all this talk of Heaven, Hell and eternal judgement is so much nonsense, but do you agree with them? Is the universe a place where there is, in the end, no justice at all?



Plan your own Funeral



What do you want your funeral to be like? Really miserable to show how much people will miss you? Really happy, because you have gone to Heaven? Really sad because you’ve probably gone to Hell? Should you be buried, cremated, turned into a diamond or recycled in an environmentally friendly way with your bits going to medical science or to serve as transplants? Do you want a religious service - if so, why? Because it’s ‘nice’, to comfort your family or to help save your soul? Vicars try to be comforting but at times it can be difficult. The funeral service by the Church tries to encourage hope of a better life to come.


Visit the oratory page and read the words of comfort at time of loss – try to identify the ways in which comfort is being offered.