BACKGROUND TO WORLD AFFAIRS 070709
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BACKGROUND TO WORLD AFFAIRS 070709
The aim of these notes is to give brief information on some of the most important events and organisations. I suggest web addresses for further information, but you can, of course, find many more yourself. For brief up-to-date information about a country or region, I recommend www.news.bbc.co.uk and, for more detail, the CIA World Factbook at www.cia.gov or Intute at www.intute.ac.uk/ For long addresses, I’ve used TinyURL. Comments and criticisms are welcomed, especially if they are corrections of factual error!. David Terry 07/07/09 terrydroit@aol.com
World Religions There are two main traditions. First, the Indian; Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, and religions that grew from them, such as Sikhism. In general these do not profess a single all-powerful God. Second, and all claiming Jerusalem as a holy city, the Abrahamic, namely Judaism, and Christianity and Islam that grew from it, all monotheistic. All major religions have split into different and, sometimes bitterly antagonistic, groups. http://tinyurl.com/n2rsf
1919 Germany was defeated in WW1, but not occupied. Her allies, the Ottoman Turkish and the Austro-Hungarian empires collapsed, as did the German empire. Tsarist Russia, which entered the war on the side of Britain and France, also collapsed with the Communist revolution of 1917. The 1919 Versailles Peace Conference gave the losers’ overseas territories to the victors as ‘mandated territories’. Britain got Palestine, formerly in the Ottoman Empire. Germany was to pay huge reparations but did so for only two years. http://tinyurl.com/msc3va
1919 to 1945 Economic collapse led to unemployment and dictatorships in Italy, Spain, Portugal and Germany and in the new communist Soviet Union. Anti-Jewish sentiment was strongest in Germany, leading to Nazism and the murder of 6 million people (the Holocaust) before and during WW2 (1939 to 1945 for most, although for some it started earlier) Japan invaded China in 1931 and again in 1937 savagely murdering millions http://tinyurl.com/nod7x7
The Cold War WW2 left two super powers, the USSR (Russia and countries it had overrun) and the USA. (The USSR started WW2 as a German ally but switched sides when Germany attacked it in 1941). Japan was occupied by the USA; Germany by the USSR, USA, Britain and France. Britain and other European states tried to keep their colonies. When force failed, they handed over power, or simply left. The British Empire, the largest in history, was replaced by independent states, many of which joined the Commonwealth. All that is left are Gibraltar and a few small islands. The USSR under Stalin imposed communist dictatorship on Eastern Europe. Japan and West Germany (just Germany after 1990) became democracies. (Unlike Japan, Germany has never tried to hide its past). Most countries joined the Soviet or the American camp. Each tried to expand its sphere of influence with often disastrous consequences. The cold war ended with the collapse of the USSR in1989. http://tinyurl.com/m3kqvc
Nuclear Weaponry Only the USA had the atomic bomb in 1945, but soon the USSR, Britain, France, and later, China, India, Pakistan, Israel and South Africa (which later gave them up) did. A bombs were used in 1945 by the US on two Japanese cities ending the war, instantly killing about 250,000 and condemning thousands more to lingering deaths. H bombs have been tested but not used. Each super power had the power to destroy the entire human race. For 45 years neither dared to attack the other. War seemed close in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 when the USSR threatened to put nuclear missiles in Cuba. President Obama is seeking significant weapons reductions with Russia. Iran seems to be developing nuclear weapons and N Korea has just tested an atomic bomb. Verification is the key to a treaty. http://tinyurl.com/mbv8w2
UNITED NATIONS the UN. Formed in 1945 as successor to the League of Nations which was founded after WW1 but was weakened by the failure of the US to join. All 192 fully recognised independent states are United Nations members. The WW2 victorious powers, the US, UK, China, Russia and France, are permanent members of the 15-member Security Council. Each has a veto. The UN is financed by member states, assessed by ability to pay. The largest contributor is the USA. Peacekeeping and UN agencies, some of which are listed below, are funded separately. Unlike the League, the UN can deploy blue-bereted peacekeeping forces, drawn from member states, provided the Security Council unanimously agrees. The Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon of South Korea. Climate change is now a major preoccupation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (www.ipcc.ch/ ) was set up in 1988. www.un.org/
NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, founded in 1949 as a military alliance of the USA, Canada and Western European countries to counter the threat of the vast USSR army. This followed the USSR attempt to force the USA, UK and France out of West Berlin, which was entirely surrounded by the Soviet zone, by preventing land access. West Berlin was fed for 11 months by air (the Berlin Airlift). Since the collapse of the USSR in 1991, and German re-unification, several former USSR states have joined NATO, much to Russia’s displeasure. Russia’s invasion of Georgia in 2008 caused tension with NATO, now easing. Turkey is a member. A NATO force, including the UK, is fighting the Taliban in Afghanistan. www.nato.int/
The Korean War. 1950 to 1953. After WW2 Korea, which had been under Japan, was divided between the USSR and the USA. South Korea became a democracy; North Korea a communist dictatorship. In 1950, N Korea attacked S Korea. The USSR was boycotting the UN in protest at the USA using its veto to continue having Taiwan (Formosa) representing China. In the absence of a USSR veto, the UN sent a US-led force, including a UK contingent. China came to the aid of the North. The conflict ended where it had started, but with a UN demilitarised zone separating North and South. Some 2 million civilians and 500,000 troops died. http://tinyurl.com/lqup9r
The Suez Crisis. 1956. By 1900, Egypt was virtually a British colony. The Suez canal, built by the French, was jointly owned by France and Britain. Under its new leader, Colonel Nasser, Egypt seized the canal. Britain and France colluded with Israel to invade. US President Eisenhower was furious, the invasion halted, Prime Minister Eden resigned, MacMillan became PM. The limitations of British power had been exposed. With the main powers distracted, the Soviet Union used military force to crush Hungarian independence. http://tinyurl.com/byxeh
The Vietnam War. 1959 to 1975. Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos were French colonies occupied by Japan in WW2. An uprising against the French after WW2 led to French defeat in 1954, a communist N Vietnam, a pro USA S Vietnam and independent Laos and Cambodia. War between N and S Vietnam began in 1965. The USA sent more and more troops, bombed supply routes in the North and in Laos and Cambodia. Many atrocities were reported and opposition to the war grew within and outside the USA. The USA and allies, who did not include the UK, were defeated in April 1975. Re-unified Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1978 to end genocide by the Chinese-backed Khymer Rouge under Pol Pot. Vietnam has enjoyed substantial economic growth and some reduction in political repression. The war caused the deaths of 3 to 4 million Vietnamese from both sides, 1.5 to 2 million Laotians and Cambodians, and 58,159 U.S. soldiers. It had a major impact on USA politics and culture. http://tinyurl.com/6qa4b
The Falklands War 1982. The Falklands is a group of islands off the Argentine coast but belonging to the UK. The Argentinean military junta of the time invaded unexpectedly. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sent a task force. Two months of fighting ended with Argentinean surrender. 258 British and 649 Argentinean personnel died. The Falklands remain British, the junta has collapsed, Argentina is now a democracy. UK/Argentine relations are good, but dispute over ownership of the seabed looms. http://tinyurl.com/mtps2x
The Balkans. Yugoslavia, a country created after WW1, collapsed in the 1990s into war between the constituent states. Many atrocities were perpetrated on Muslims, including the mass murder of some 9,000 men and boys at Srebrenica in Bosnia. A US-led NATO force intervened. An uneasy peace persists with tension in Kosovo and Bosnia. http://tinyurl.com/nkzxev
China Weakened by European nations seizing enclaves, the Empire collapsed in 1912. Civil war followed between the official Kuomintang government and Mao Tsai Dung’s communists. Japan overran about a third of China, murdering soldiers and civilians with indescribable brutality. After WW2, Kuomintang China was recognised as a victorious power, but Mao won the civil war in 1949. The Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan(formally Formosa) China and US/UN fought a proxy war in Korea 1950 to 1953. China has annexed Tibet and suppressed Tibetan nationals. Many Chinese also live in Tibet. China is now fully recognised and set to become the other superpower. China/USA relations are business-like. The USA is heavily in debt to China. Taiwan is a state in all but name and relations with China are improving. But China persists in asserting that it is part of China. China’s population is over a billion. http://tinyurl.com/l82etx
Africa has 61 countries or territories, and around a billion people speaking about 2000 languages. Countries in the north are Arabic and Muslim while those south of the Sahara (sub-Saharan) are Christian, a legacy of European colonisation. A hundred years ago all but Ethiopia were European possessions or dependencies. Now only Spain has African possessions, two tiny enclaves in Morocco. Present day sub-Saharan borders were determined by European politicians without regard to geography or tribal and cultural divisions. The nineteenth century scramble for Africa was followed, in the 1950s and 1960s, by a scramble to get out of Africa. Over 40 nations became independent amid high hopes for their futures. Virtually all these hopes were dashed. In nearly every newly free country, democracy failed and coups, dictatorships and civil wars followed, many of terrible savagery, notably genocide in Rwanda in 1994, the Darfur region of Sudan from 2001, and the Democratic Republic of Congo throughout. Despite vast amounts of aid, Africa has got poorer. In 1970 most poor nations were in Asia; now they are in Africa. Some blame aid, saying it has discouraged the development of indigenous industries and lined the pockets of corrupt rulers. Natural resource exploitation has often had the same effect. During the Cold War the USSR and the USA tried to secure allies, however corrupt they were. But the age of dictators may be ending. A new middle class is developing. The internet and mobile phones are giving power to the masses, although they can be used to organise atrocities as well as to empower poor producers. China is pouring money into African countries in order to exploit their natural resources. AIDS has killed, and is killing millions. http://tinyurl.com/mrkoyc Climate change is a major threat. http://tinyurl.com/mvgcl4
South Africa The economically strongest state in sub Saharan Africa. A British Dominion from 1909 (similar, for example, to Canada), it declared itself independent as the Union of South Africa in 1961 to pursue a policy of racial segregation or apartheid, maintaining white superiority by brutal suppression of the black majority. The country became a pariah state. The African National Congress (the ANC) was banned and its leaders, who included Whites as well as Blacks, were either executed, imprisoned or fled abroad. Apartheid crumbled in 1989. Nelson Mandela, freed after 27 years in prison, became head of the ANC and led the country to democracy and racial equality without the terrible civil war that many feared. He persuaded the white minority to stay and work to make the country a success. Mr Mandela retired in 2001 to be succeeded as President by Thabo Mbeki. Mr Mbeki was forced out by the ANC in December 2007 and succeeded by an interim President. Jacob Zuma now leads the ANC and was elected President in April 2009, corruption charges against him having been dropped, with a majority of just under 66%. Much hinges on how successful he is. http://tinyurl.com/md7m55
Zimbabwe Formerly the British colony of Southern Rhodesia whose white minority made a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) in 1965. Trade sanctions and civil war led to democracy in 1980 with Robert Mugabe elected President. The country had considerable support from Britain and others. Its future seemed bright. But all has gone horribly wrong, starting with Mugabe’s massacre of 25,000 in Matabeleland. Now 85, surrounded with cronies and thugs, he has encouraged supporters to take land from the white minority and refused to accept election results. Hundreds have been murdered and thousands tortured or badly beaten. The economy collapsed, millions fled, the remainder starved and there was a cholera epidemic. Former South African President Mbeki led efforts by surrounding countries to broker a deal to allow Morgan Tsvangirai, the leader of the opposition party that actually won the election in 2008, to assume power. Mr Tsvangirai was sworn in as PM in February 2009, but Mr Mugabe kept control of key ministeries, and the police and army. Mr Tsvangirai recently toured rich countries appealing for investment in Zimbabwe, without much success. http://tinyurl.com/mwq7sn
Sierra Leone A former British colony. In 2000, a UN force having failed to end a brutal civil war, the UK intervened The RUF rebel army rapidly collapsed on the arrival of a British force of a few hundred willing, unlike the UN force, to take casualties if necessary. But the country remains one of the world’s poorest. http://tinyurl.com/2s7tl
Failed States are of increasing concern to the UN, the EU and to all rich nations, especially to the USA. A failed state is one where there is no government over all or large parts, where crime flourishes and which is a potential source of piracy, terrorism, drug production and supply. Misrule, violence, corruption, forced migration, poverty, illiteracy and disease reinforce each other. If a pandemic were to start in one, there would be little chance of containing it. Somalia is the worst example. http://tinyurl.com/ny26xa
Israel is a democracy of 6 million Jews and one million Arabs. The region was part of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. After WW1, Britain controlled all of what is now Israel and surrounding countries, except Syria and Lebanon which were under France. We promised a ‘national home for the Jews’. Persecution in Russia, Poland and genocide in Germany, led to a Jewish influx. Arabs were forced to move. Many Jews, including Einstein, were given sanctuary by the USA,. After WW2, the British handed over to the UN who proposed a state of Israel. Arab-Israel war followed. Israel won. Thousands of Arabs became refugees. So Arabs suffered for European persecution of Jews. The USA has consistently supported Israel (but this is changing). In 2006 Israel invaded Southern Lebanon in response to rocket attacks by Syria-backed Hezbollah. Great damage and loss of life ensued but Israel failed to subdue Hezbollah. There is now a UN demilitarised strip in S Lebanon. Arab refugees and their descendants occupy two areas: the West Bank and the Gaza strip. Elections in 2006 resulted in Fatah governing the former and its bitter enemy, Hamas, the latter. Israel, the USA and its allies refuse to recognise Hamas saying it is terrorist. Gaza, 25 miles by about 5 miles, with 1.4 million people, depends on aid from the UN, the EU and elsewhere. From 2008 Hamas fired rockets into Israel who invaded, killing hundreds and injuring thousands. Most essentials enter by tunnels under the border with Egypt. Israel tries to stop reconstruction materials entering, fearing they are a cloak for rockets. President Obama is insisting on an independent Palestine and no more Israeli settlement there (the West Bank). Hardline PM Binyamin Netanyahu is resisting. http://tinyurl.com/au9bm
Iran Formerly Persia, the monarch, the Shah, was overthrown in 1979 and it became Iran, a Shia Islamic republic (most other Arab states are Sunni, but not Iraq, which is mixed). With a population of over 70 million, it has an elected President, Mr Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, but an unelected supreme leader, a cleric, Ayatollah Khamenei. Mr Ahmadinejad was declared re-elected in elections in June 2009, provoking claims that the election was fraudulent and riots that were brutally suppressed One of the most advanced of the Islamic countries with considerable natural resources, Iran fought a bloody but inconclusive war, in which over 2 million died, with Iraq from1980 to 1988. Iran seems to be developing a nuclear war capability. It has tested a missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead. The fear is that Israel will launch a pre-emptive attack. Were this to happen, the consequences could be general war in the region. The US is working to prevent this. But the present turmoil is a major handicap. http://tinyurl.com/lrrzsh
Al Qaeda, Afghanistan and Iraq Led by Osama bin Laden, a Saudi Arabian multi millionaire, Al Qaeda is a world-wide network of terrorists targeting non-Muslims. Their worst atrocity was 9/11, on September 11, 2001 (or 9/11 in the USA), when four passenger planes were hijacked on take-off. Two were crashed into the New York Trade Center, one crashed into the Pentagon, HQ of the US armed services, and the fourth into an open area after passengers overpowered the hijackers. Over 3,000 people perished, including everyone on board the planes. The US then led invasions of Afghanistan where the Taliban, an extreme Muslim sect, ruled and where Al Qaeda were thought to be based, and of Iraq, ruled by Saddam Hussein and said to possess Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) The cost in human lives, and financially, has been enormous. No WMDs were found. The UK government has announced an enquiry. US and UK troops have now withdrawn. http://tinyurl.com/l2aynh http://tinyurl.com/n42of6
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh British rule ended in 1947. A million died in Hindu/Muslim violence when new Muslim state of Pakistan was created. After the India/Pakistan war of 1971, East Pakistan, separated by 800 miles from W Pakistan, became Bangladesh. India and China fought a war in 1962. Terrorists from Pakistan murdered 200 in the Mumbai atrocity of November 2008. India/Pakistan relations are tense with Kashmir disputed territory. Taliban fighters in Afghanistan based in North West Pakistan are fighting the Pakistan army. Thousands have died and a million have fled. India is the world’s largest democracy, and soon to overtake China as the largest country, but also one of the most unequal with 40% of the world’s poorest, despite its rapid technological development http://tinyurl.com/2xocj
Terrorism and Suicide Bombing Al-Qaeda are not the only group to use suicide bombers.. Others include the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka who are not of any religion, Christians in Lebanon and in Chechnya. In July 2005, 4 suicide bombers killed 52 London commuters. http://tinyurl.com/bcbhp ; http://tinyurl.com/lmmh2m
Sri Lanka Tamil Tigers in the north have been fighting for Tamil independence for 25 years with dreadful atrocities on both sides. Government forces have finally won in June 2009, but at huge cost in civilian casualties. Humanitarian disaster looms. http://tinyurl.com/kp4yz6
The Millennium Development Goals or MDGs In 2000 the UN agreed a number of goals to be achieved by 2015. They are: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; Achieve universal primary education; Promote gender equality and empower women; Reduce child mortality; Improve maternal health; Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; Ensure environmental sustainability; Develop a global partnership for development. www.un.org/
The World Food Programme (WFP) is the food aid branch of the United Nations, the world's largest humanitarian agency. It feeds over 90 million people a year. beta.wfp.org/
The World Health Organization (WHO) A UN agency with its HQ in Geneva. The Director-General, Margaret Chan, is leading the international strategy to combat the Swine Flu pandemic. Other major concerns are Avian Flu, HIV/AIDS and Malaria. http://www.who.int/en/
Globalisation is not new, but the rise of technology and international capitalism has meant that nearly everything we use is the product of natural resources and labour from many different countries. We are more interdependent than ever. http://tinyurl.com/n2utnv
Global Finance Crisis 2007 – present Trade depends on money and loans from banks. If banks lend so unwisely that the value of their assets are insufficient to repay their depositors, bank bonds are distrusted, credit dries up, trade plummets, factories close or lay off workers and unemployment soars. This is exacerbated by large financial imbalances between states, as there is with the USA heavily in debt to China. All countries are affected, but how much depends on local factors such the nature of the economy and the state of their finances. Iceland, Ireland and Latvia are among the worst hit. http://tinyurl.com/nbww8x ; http://tinyurl.com/mxjf3f
The World Bank was formed to channel funds for the rebuilding of Europe after WW 2. Rich countries lend it money, poor ones borrow. The Bank's activities are now focused on developing countries. Loans or grants are often dependent on policy changes. www.worldbank.org/
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) Founded in 1944 with the aim of building a framework for worldwide economic cooperation. The IMF and the World Bank complement each other's work. Most countries are members of both. Voting is proportionate to financial contributions. This gives the USA a veto. http://tinyurl.com/nxs9ew
The World Trade Organisation, (WTO) With HQ in Geneva, the WTO is a forum for nations to negotiate the rules of trade. Currently 153 states are members. Russia has abandoned its attempt to join, objecting being required to reform its trade practices. The WTO is currently hosting the Doha Round (Doha is the capital of Qatar in the Persian Gulf where the talks began in 2005) which aims to reduce grossly unfair agricultural subsidies and dumping practices of, especially, the USA, the EU and Japan. Progress so far is deeply disappointing. www.wto.org/
World Bank, IMF and WTO Criticism All have often been accused of policies that make the rich nations richer and the poor, poorer. See http://tinyurl.com/cczqhs
The G7 is the meeting of the finance ministers of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States of America. http://tinyurl.com/mynrq7
The G8 With no headquarters, budget or permanent staff (or website), comprises the seven leading industrialised nations, plus Russia. http://tinyurl.com/czo7n
The G20 comprises the G8 plus the next 11 richest nations and the EU. The London meeting of G20 leaders on April 2, 2009 agreed measures to avert a world slump. They meet again in September in New York to review progress, and most are expected to be at the UN climate change conference in Copenhagen in December. The G20 may well subsume the G8 and the G7. But some think that we really have a G2-the USA and China. http://tinyurl.com/6fr9d7
The BRIC Nations BRIC or BRICs is an acronym for the developing economies of Brazil, Russia, India , and China. First summit was in Russia in June. http://tinyurl.com/m7khx8
The World Economic Forum, an independent economic forum for world leaders run by the Swiss government. Meets annually in Davos, Switzerland. http://tinyurl.com/mbf8hy
The World Social Forum (WSF) Its ninth annual meeting in Brazil early in 2009 was attended by thousands from across the world. Aims to be a laboratory of ideas on justice, peace and human rights. The UN is represented by UNESCO. http://tinyurl.com/mpysq4
The European Union (EU) with HQ in Brussels, developed after WW2 from a determination by French and German leaders to tie their economies together so as to make war between them almost impossible. Initially six member states, now 27, with several more wishing to join including, controversially, Turkey, which would add a secular but Muslim peopled state. Richer states are net contributors; poorer states and regions get grants. http://tinyurl.com/3993pz
The OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Founded in 1961 and based in Paris, has 30 member-countries, all rich democracies. Provides a forum for, and publishes statistics and forecasts on, economic and social policies. www.oecd.org/home/
DFID The UK Department for International Development. The aims of DFID are based on the MDGs (see p5 above). In 2007 the total spent on overseas development was £4.9 billion or 0.36% of our Gross National Income (GNI) compared to 0.26% in 1997. The Government accepts the UN target for developed nations of 0.7% by 2013. www.dfid.gov.uk/
NGOs or non governmental organisations covers independent aid charities such as Christian Aid, Oxfam, Concern Universal, Médecins sans Frontieres, which are funded by donations but often used by governments to channel aid. Their budgets, compared with those of governments, are small. But their influence is considerable. http://tinyurl.com/fte9h There are also private foundations, most notably the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation funded by two of the richest men in the world, Warren Buffett and Bill Gates, to the tune of some $37 billion. It makes a huge contribution to fighting malaria, which kills over a million a year. www.gatesfoundation.org
The African Union (AU) with 53 member states, it was founded in 2004 as an African EU. An AU army has tried, unsuccessfully, to bring peace to Somalia.http://tinyurl.com/n7naxb
International Law is essentially the network of treaties entered into by nations. There is no international police force to enforce the law. But there are courts whose jurisdiction extends to nations that have signed up to them. http://tinyurl.com/moo8ws
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) part of the UN, sits in The Hague and settles legal disputes on matters submitted to it by States and UN agencies. http://tinyurl.com/nd5rrb
The European Court of Justice (ECJ) the highest court of the European Union (EU), has the ultimate say on EU law for all EU members. http://tinyurl.com/m5dxx2
The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) rules on HR matters for the 47 signatories to the European Convention on Human Rights. Independent of the EU. http://tinyurl.com/2rax33
The International Criminal Court (ICC) Set up in 2002 to try cases of crimes against humanity. Weakened by the USA, Russia, China and India not joining. http://tinyurl.com/n4helr
International Criminal Tribunals (ICTs) Set up to prosecute those responsible for specified atrocities or genocide. Currently there are ICTs for Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda and hybrid courts for Sierra Leone and for Cambodia. http://tinyurl.com/kr55uj
UK PMs/Governing Parties since WW2. 1945-1952, Atlee, Labour; 1951-55, Churchill, Conservative; 1955-57 Eden, Con; 1957-63 MacMillan, Con; 1963-64 Douglas-Home, Con; 1964-70, Wilson, Lab; 1970-74, Heath,Con;1974-76, Wilson, Lab; 1976-79, Callaghan, Lab; 1979-90, Thatcher, Con; 1990-97, Major, Con; 1997-2007, Blair, Lab; 2007-present, Brown, Lab.
US Presidents/Parties. 1945-53,Truman, Democrat (D); 1953-61, Eisenhower, Republican (R); 1961-63 Kennedy, D, (assassinated); 1963-69, Johnson, D; 1969-74, Nixon, R, (resigned after Watergate scandal); 1974-77, Ford, R; 1977-81, Carter, D; 1981-89, Reagan, R,1989-93, Bush Snr, R; 1993-2001, Clinton, D; 2001-09, Bush Jnr, R; Barack Obama, D; 2009-present.
Copyright © David Terry 2009
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